Fractional Distillation

Acids and Alkali-chemical reactions

• Chemical reactions of acids/alkali
  

1. Metal + Acid = metal salt + hydrogen
   

2. Acid + Alkali = metal salt + Water

3. Metal carbonate + Acid = metal salt + water + carbon dioxide

4. Ammonia + Acid = ammonium salt


Taken from: http://www.wpbschoolhouse.btinternet.co.uk/page03/AcidsBasesSalts.htm#(2)

Acids and Alkailis-Basics

• ACIDS
  

Acids are compounds that when dissolved into water,gives a solvent with pH value less than 7. Acids has sour taste,strong acids produces a stinging feeling when in contact,strong acids reacts strongly,corrodes many metals.Acids also conducts electricity,and turns litmus paper red.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acids

• Alkali

Alkali are compounds that when dissolved into water,gives a solvent with pH value more than 7. Acids has bitter taste,strong alkali gives a slimy feeling when in contact,strong alkali reacts strongly to acidic substances.Alkali also turns litmus paper blue.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_%28chemistry%29

Photosynthesis in desert plants

• Cactus

Cacti depend on chlorophyll in the outer tissue of their skin and stems to conduct photosynthesis for the making of food. Spines protect the plant from animals, shade it from the sun and also collect moisture. Extensive shallow root systems are usually radial, allowing for the quick storage of large quantities of water when it rains. Because they store water in the core of both stems and roots, cacti are well-suited to dry climates and can survive years of drought on the water collected from a single rainfall.

Taken from: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/botanicalsciences/PlantsAdaptability/DesertPlant/DesertPlant.htm

Respiration

• Plants

Respiration in plants is essential as it provides metabolic energy and carbon skeletons for growth and repairs. As such, respiration is an essential component of a plant's carbon budget. Depending on species and environmental conditions, it consumes 25-75% of all the carbohydrates produced in photosynthesis,even more at extremely slow growth rates. Respiration in plants can also proceed in a manner that produces neither metabolic energy nor carbon skeletons, but heat.

Taken from: http://www.cplbookshop.com/contents/C2066.htm

• Animals

In complex animals, where the cells of internal organs are far from the external environment, respiratory systems facilitate the passage of gases to and from internal tissues. In such systems, when there is a difference in pressure of a particular gas on opposite sides of a membrane, the gas diffuses from the side of greater pressure to the side of lesser pressure, and each gas is transported independently of other gases.

• Humans
  

Gas exchange in humans takes place in the lungs. Breathing is the procedure in which oxygen reaches the lungs. During inhalation muscular action lowers the diaphragm and raises the ribs; atmospheric pressure forces air into the enlarged chest cavity. In exhalation the muscles relax and the air is expelled. This combined rhythmic action takes place about 12–16 times per minute when the body is at rest. The rate of breathing is controlled mainly by a respiratory center in the brain stem that responds to changes in the level of hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide in the blood, as well as to other factors such as stress, temperature changes, and motor activities. Some residual air always remains in the lungs, but with each breath an additional quantity of fresh air, called tidal air, is inhaled.

Taken from: http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0860708.html

Cells

A cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living things. It is the simplest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the "building block of life."

Types of cells

• Eukaryotic cells
  

Eukaryotic cells are usually found in multicellular organisms. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus".

• Prokaryotic cells
  

Prokaryotes are distinguished from eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear organization, specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes also lack most of the intracellular organelles and structures that are characteristic of eukaryotic cells. Most functions of organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the Golgi apparatus, are taken over by the prokaryotic plasma membrane. Prokaryotic cells have three architectural regions: appendages called flagella and pili — proteins tha are attached to the cell surface; a cell envelope ,consisting of a capsule, a cell wall , and a plasma membrane; and a cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29

Elements,Compounds and Mixtures-Advanced

Separation methods of mixtures

• Chromatography

Chromatography involves a extract,being dissolved in a mobile stage either a gas or a liquid. The mobile stage is then forced through an immobile, immiscible stationary stage. The stages are chosen such that components of the sample have different solubilities in each phase. A component which is quite soluble in the stationary stage will take longer to travel through it than a component which is not very soluble in the stationary stage but very soluble in the mobile stage. As a result of these differences in mobilities, sample components will become separated from each other as they travel through the stationary stage.

Taken from: http://teaching.shu.ac.uk/hwb/chemistry/tutorials/chrom/chrom1.htm

• Distillation

Distillation is the process of heating a liquid until it boils, gets and cool the hot vapours and collecting the condensed vapours. Distillation is used to purify a compound by separating it from a non-volatile or less-volatile material. When different compounds in a mixture have different boiling points, they separate into individual components when the mixture is carefully distilled.

Taken from: http://orgchem.colorado.edu/hndbksupport/dist/dist.html

• Fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, such as in separating compounds by their boiling points by heating them to a temperature at which several fractions of the compound will evaporate


Taken from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillation

1. Fragrance Extraction

Fragrance extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials.


Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_%28fragrance%29

• Filtration

Filtration is the process of using a filer to separate a of mixture solids and liquids . Depending, the solid, the liquid, or both may be isolated.

To separate a mixture of compounds, a liquid is chosen which dissolves one part, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the liquid, one part will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration

• Evaporation

Evaporation is the process by which molecules in a liquid state continuously become gaseous state, without being heated to the boiling point . It is the opposite of condensation. Generally, evaporation can be seen by the slow disappearance of a liquid, when exposed to a certain volume of gas.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation

• Crystallization

Crystallization is the process of formation of solid crystals from a solvent. Crystallization is also a chemical solid-liquid separation technique, in which mass transfer of a solid from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.

Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization

Elements,Compounds and Mixtures-Chemical Formulas

Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula is a way of tell information about the atoms that made up a particular chemical compound. It identifies each type of element by its chemical symbol and identifies the number of atoms of such element to be found in each molecule of that compound.

Taken from:http://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/chemical_formula.htm

Elements,Compounds and Mixtures-Basic

Elements

Elements are substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances. Each element has its own type of properties.Symbols

are used by scientists to identify the elements.A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that exists by itself. Gases are special as their atoms are not able to exists individually.

Compounds

A compound is formed when 2 or more elements

chemically bonded together.When elements of the
compound bonded,the individual properties will be
gone and the newly formed compound will have
different properties from the elements that it is made up from.

Mixtures

Mixtures are 2 or more substances that are mixed
together but not chemically bonded.Mixtures can be
separated by physical means.

Taken from: http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/textbook/compounds.html

Chromatography